Animal Anatomy And Physiology (Animal Husbandry I )

Why study animal anatomy and physiology?

The term anatomy refers to the science that deals with the form and structure of animals. Physiology deals with the study of functions of the animal body or any of its parts. A thorough knowledge of the structure of an animal imparts a lot of information about the various functions it is capable of performing. This course is intended to give an overview of both the anatomy and physiology of many animals. 

It can be used as an introductory course to further studies; to help you understand how to diagnose disease or determine if an animal has sustained an injury; to help understand the physical capabilities or limitations of particular species;  to understand what happens in the nutrition and growth processes; and to assist you to get better performance from your animals.

This knowledge is essential if you are going to work with animals in any capacity.

This course should be the foundation of any further study of animals.

Lesson Structure

There are 11 lessons in this course:

1. Introduction, cells & tissues
   • Crops and livestock inter-relationship
   • Animal Cell - cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, Golgi appartus etc.
   • Animal Tissues - epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues
   • Cellular properties - Osmosis, filtration, hydrostatic pressure etc.
   • Cellular nutrient and waste exchange
2. The Digestive System
   • Components of the Digestive System
   • Simple stomach structure and function - digestion, absorption, utilisation
   • The small intestine structure and function
   • The large intestine structure and function
   • The Ruminant stomach - rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum
   • Disegtion, absorption and utilisation in the runinant stomach
   • Poutlry Digestion - crop, proventriculus, gizzard
   • Accessory glands of the digestive system - salivery glands, pancreas, liver
   • Hormaones and enzymes
   • Microbial breakdown
   • End-products of digestion
3. The Circulatory System
   • Circulatory networks
   • Pulmonary circulation
   • Systemic circulation
   • Hepatic portal system
   • Lymphatic system
   • The compostion of blood - plasma, RBC's, Platelets, WBC's
   • Functions of Blood - clooting mechanisms, immunity etc
   • The blood vessels - arteries, veins, venules, arterioles, and capillaries
   • The Heart
   • Physiology of the circulatory system
4. The Urinary System
   • The anatomy of the unrinary system - kidneys, ureters, and bladder
   • The physiology of the unrinary system - Nephrons, Bowman's capsule, Loop of Henle, convuluted tubules etc
   • Excretion and osmoregulation
5. The Nervous System
   • Central nervous system (CNS)
   • Peripheral nervous system
   • Neurones - sensory and motor
   • The brain - medulla oblongata, hypothalmus, olfactory bulb, cerebrum, thalamus etc.
   • The spinal cord
   • The cranial and spinal nerves
   • The autonomic nervous system
   • The endocrine system
   • Sensory organs - ears, nose, eye amd common integument (skin)
6. Respiration
   • The anatomy of respiration
   • The trachea
   • The bronchial tree
   • Lungs
   • The physiology of respiration
   • Gaseous exchange
   • Breathing
7. The Reproductive System
   • Anatomy of male reproduction - testes, accessory organs, and the penis
   • The physiology of male reproduction
   • Hormone amd sperm production
   • Erection and ejaculation
   • Fertility problems in the male
   • Venereal disease, injury, physical and emotional immaturity, nutirtion etc
   • Anatomy of female reproduction - ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and the vulva
   • The physiology of female reproduction
   • The oestrus cycle
   • Ovulation
   • Female fertility problems
   • Pregnancy and partuition
   • Structure of the mammary glands
   • Milk secretion
8. Muscles & Meat
   • The muscular system
   • Types of muscle - smooth, striated and cardiac
   • The structure of meat
   • Meat quality
9. The Skeleton
   • The anatomy of bones
   • How bones are formed
   • Fractures and fracture healing
   • Types of bones
   • Bone joints - moveable and immovable
   • Dentition
   • The dental formula - cattle, sheep, and pigs
10. Animal Growth, Development, and the Endocrine System
    • Growth curves
    • Pre-natal growth - ovum, embryo, and foetus
    • Post-natal growth
    • Factora that affect the growth of new-borns
    • Factors that affect post natal growth
    • Compensatory growth
    • The endocrine system - pituitary body, thyroid, parathyroids, pancreas, and adrenals
11. Comparing Different Animals
    • Poultry digestion
    • Important differences between mammals and bird skeletons
    • Incubating eggs - natural and artificial
    • Set task - comparing a range of other selected animals

Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading.

Aims

• Discuss the physical components of mammals and other animals, including cells and tissues.
• Explain the digestive system of more than one type of animal, in terms of both structure and function.
• Describe the circulatory system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the urinary system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the nervous system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the respiratory system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Explain the reproductive system of animals, including structure and function.
• Explain the muscular system in animals, including the structure and function of muscles, and meat quality.
• Explain the skeletal system of a typical mammal, in terms of both structure and function.
• Describe the biological mechanisms underlying the growth and development of animals and explain the endocrine system of animals, in terms of both structure and function.
• Describe differences between different types of animals, in terms of both structure and function.

What You Will Do

• Identify parts of an animal cell and make a diagram
• Describe the major features of a living animal cell, including structure and function.
• Explain an example of how cells interact in live animals.
• Explain cell function for 3 different types of cells in animals.
• Differentiate between the composition of three different types of animal tissues, using illustrations.
• Explain functions of 4 different animal tissue types.
• Distinguish between the major animal types used in primary production, including birds, fish, ruminants, and non ruminants.
• List different types of products commercially produced or derived from various farm or wild animals.
• Explain the role of pastures for animal husbandry, in your locality.
• Report on the scope of animal production in your locality.
• Describe the processes of nutrient and waste exchange in animal cells.
• Label diagrams of the digestive system of these three different animals.
• Describe the processes occurring in digestion, in each section of the digestive system.
• Compare the digestive systems of different animals including:
  • Describe the action of enzymes and micro-organisms in the digestion of an animal of your choice (name the animal).
  • Explain the role of accessory organs, including the liver and the pancreas. Outline differences in the care of 2 animals observed. Comment on any differences observed.
• Explain the components of blood in animals studied
• Explain the biological functions of blood in animals studied
• Label the parts of the circulatory system in an mammal
• Explain the structure of an artery.
• Distinguish between the characteristics of the various types of blood vessels found in mammals.
• Explain the role of the lymphatic system in a studied animal.
• Label diagram of a urinary system found in the unlabelled diagrams booklet.
• Explain the role of the urinary system of animals.
• Describe the operation of the various parts of the urinary system, in one of the following animals.
• Describe different components of the nervous systems of studied animals
• Distinguish between the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
• Explain the function of the autonomic nervous system in an animal.
• Describe the structure of the sensory organs, including the ear, eye and nose.
• Explain the function of the sensory organs
• Describe components of the respiratory system of animals.
• Explain the purpose of the respiratory system in animals.
• Explain how the respiratory system functions in animals.
• Describe the process of gaseous exchange between the alveolus and capillaries.
• Explain how the rate of breathing is controlled in animals.
• Label the unlabelled diagrams of the male and female reproductive systems.
• Describe the function of each of the components of the male reproductive system.
• Explain the various physiological processes in the male reproductive system.
• Explain different fertility problems in a male animal including.
• Describe the function of components of the female reproductive system.
• Explain the various physiological processes in the female reproductive system.
• Explain various fertility problems in a female animal.
• Explain two different 'difficult birth' conditions encountered in animals.
• Distinguish between the slides of 3 different muscle types.
• Compare how the three types of muscle function.
• Describe the components of the musculatory system of an animal.
• Define meat quality in relation to muscle development.
• Identify the cuts and joints of meat derived from sheep, cattle, and pigs.
• List the different cuts of meat you observed and describe their appearance.
• Explain the role of the skeletal system in an animal.
• Describe the anatomy of a typical long bone.
• Explain how bone is formed in an animal.
• Draw and label skeletal parts on a series of diagrams.
• Explain the operation of a freely moving joint in a skeleton.
• Differentiate between different types of bone fractures in animals including simple breaks and compound fractures.
• Describe the healing process for the different types of fractures.
• Explain the processes of growth and development at a cellular level.
• Describe pre-natal and post-natal growth processes in 2 different animals.
• List factors which influence the size of newborn animals.
• List factors which influence growth after birth.
• List the components of the endocrine system in an animal.
• Distinguish between different endocrine glands, for a specified animal, by location, appearance, and function.
• Describe five hormones found in animals.
• Explain the role of the endocrine system in animals.
• Prepare a table/chart which shows characteristics that distinguish mammals from poultry, from fish, and from crustaceans in each of the main systems.
• Compare the differences between structural and physiological characteristics of two different animals from the same taxonomic class, but of different genera.

ANIMAL TISSUES

"Animals are multi-cellular organisms. Single cells, many of which are specialised so that they can perform a particular function, are grouped together to form tissues. These tissues in turn form special groups called organs. The groups of organs make up a system, and the systems join together to form a living body.There are four basic types of tissue found in animals and these are:

• Epithelial tissues
• Connective tissues
• Muscle tissues
• Nervous tissues

Epithelial tissues

These tissues are formed from cells which join together to form covering layers, for example, the skin covering the body. This type of tissue also forms the covering layers of various organs in the body; the lining of the body cavities and the active parts of the glands of the body. Epithelial tissues are made up of specialised cells of various shapes and are joined in different ways.

Connective tissues

This is the tissue which joins other tissues together on many different levels. Connective tissues give form and strength to many organs, and often serve for protection and leverage as well as having other functions. Examples of connective tissue are: bones; tendons; ligaments; cartilage, and blood. These will be covered in more detail later in the course.BloodIn animals, blood is the carrier of nutrients and waste products around the body. It carries nutrients to the cells and waste products away from the cell. (The conversion of nutrients to waste products takes place inside the cell). The blood that carries the nutrients to the cells is called arterial blood because it travels along the arteries; the blood that carries away the waste products is called venous blood because it travels through veins. Later in this section we will discuss how the nutrients pass from the arteries into the cells and how the waste products pass from the cells into the veins.

Muscle tissues

Muscle tissue is made so that it can expand and contract. You contract (shorten) the muscles of your arm when you pick up a brick and expand (lengthen) them when you stretch out your arm. The involuntary muscles of the body expand and contract on their own (think how your heart beats without your control as well as movements of digestion).There are three types of muscle tissues:

• Striated or voluntary muscle tissue which is the type found in your arms and legs and which you can rest as you wish.
• Smooth or involuntary muscle tissue works automatically and cannot be controlled by you. Involuntary muscle tissue would be found in the muscle in the intestine which moves food along though the gastrointestinal tract.
• Cardiac muscle tissue is also involuntary and cannot be controlled by you. This type of muscle tissue is found in the heart.

An important point to note is that the flesh not skin of an animal is made up of striated muscle tissue. The flesh, or muscle tissue, forms the meat of a carcass.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue is comprised of nerve cells. These cells are sensitive to outside stimuli, such as heat and touch they also transmit and process information. They can link up charges and transmit impulses through the nervous system.These are the different types of tissues, but remember that, although they are different from each other because they perform different functions, they are all made up of cells. These cells are the basic units of life. They take in food or nutrients, utilise the nutrients and produce energy and waste products. That is the basic process of living - the breakdown of food into energy and waste products. This process goes on in plants and animals (remember man is an animal too!)"